THE NEW LATVIANS
The national awakening was influenced by the national and revolutionary movements in Europe and reforms in Russia, which prescribed greater economic independence and rights for peasants. The first educated sons of Latvian peasantry began the process of consolidating the nation, in an aspiration to neutralise the economic and spiritual leadership of the Baltic German aristocracy. One of the ideologues of the New Latvian movement was Krišjānis Valdemārs (1825-1891). Having achieved Russian-scale authority in seafaring matters, Valdemārs gained permission to publish the newspaper ‘Pēterburgas Avīzes’, in which Juris Alunāns (1832-1864) and Krišjānis Barons (1835-1923) also worked. Influenced by the ideas of the New Latvians, writers became interested in the use of folklore and the ancient history of the Latvian people. Juris Alunāns wrote ‘Dziesmiņas’ (Songlets) (1856), a compilation of poetic reproductions in order to demonstrate that it was possible to express the same thoughts in Latvian as were expressed in ancient (Greek, Latin) and modern (German, Russian) languages. Fricis Brīvzemnieks and Barons began the systematisation of Latvian folk songs, which was concluded with the publication of the monumental ‘Latvju Dainas’ (1-6, 1894-1915), a compilation and systematisation of 219 996 song texts and their variations.
A new era in the New Latvian movement began in the late 1860s, when Rīga became the centre for Latvian social activity. The ‘Rīga Latvian Society’ was founded in 1868, and other societies using this as a template were also formed in Kurzeme and Vidzeme. The first theatre performances in Latvian were held in 1868, and in 1869 the Rīga Latvian Theatre was founded, which staged the first original plays by Ādolfs Alunāns (1848-1912). The seeds for various centres of science, libraries, etc. were sown by the Society. The first Song Festival was held in Rīga in 1873, in which singers from Vidzeme and Kurzeme participated, encouraging a notion of unified national identity and a development of self-awareness. In the 1870s many Latvian publishing houses were established.
Teacher Atis Kronvalds (1837-1875) continued the idea of the New Latvians, who in contradiction to attempts by Krišjānis Valdemārs to find allies in Russian society, oriented himself to members of the German society who were benevolent towards Latvian culture. Kronvalds believed that the foundation for national culture could be established in Latvian schools, where lessons in Latvian could occur from elementary to higher education. National culture during the era of national awakening was associated with recognition of the fatherland, the use of the Latvian language in all spheres of life and a sense of a unified past. 60 years later this gained the title of the ‘National Awakening’.
The ideals of the National Awakening were embodied by the poet Miķelis Krogzemis (1850-1879) (his pseudonym — Auseklis — means ‘morning star’), who created the legend of the sunken ‘castle of light’, which would rise up out of the depths of a lake, if it was remembered and its name spoken aloud. Poets of the era of National Awakening composed works about the legendary past, where before the invasion of German crusaders in the 13th century, Latvian (Baltic) tribes had been free. Ancient history and legends seemed more attractive to these poets than the present. Inspired by Latvian folkloric themes and examples of foreign epic poetry, Andrejs Pumpurs (1841-1902) wrote the epic poem ‘Lāčplēsis’ (1888), which included characters that were used in Latvian literature later on. Lāčplēsis, created as a fairytale hero, became a symbol of the nation’s strength. His battle with the black knight was symbolic of the struggle of the Latvian people for independence. The inclusion of the past and myths in the works of national romantic poets become a basis for the future.
Alongside the wish of the national romantics to immerse themselves in the nation’s past, writers began to look for inspiration for storylines in the everyday social life of the peasantry. The brothers Reinis Kaudzīte (1839-1920) and Matīss Kaudzīte (1848-1926) wrote the first Latvian novel ‘Mērnieku laiki’ (Surveyor Times) (1879), which depicted the process of buying a house in Vidzeme. The writers used people they themselves knew as prototypes for characters in the novel, and situations familiar to the reader.
The traditions of realistic tales and psychological portrayals were begun by Juris Neikens and Apsīšu Jēkabs (real name: Jānis Jaunzemis). The sentimentalist tradition in poetry was developed by Jānis Esenberģis and Vensku Edvards (real name: Eduards Skujenieks).
THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERN LITERATURE IN THE 1890s
Up until the early 20th century, the traditional living place for Latvians was the country: homesteads, set apart from one another in a peaceful natural landscape. Literature portrayed the country farmhouse and life in the household as the most stable and enduring lifestyle. Life was defined by the rhythm of the seasons, nature and work. The peasants’ yearning for their own land, ‘savs kaktiņš, savs stūrītis’ (‘My own little corner’, the title of Jānis Purapuķe’s novel) and hard farm work created the backdrop for literary works which were written at the turn of the 20th century. The most talented writer of the late 19th century was Rūdolfs Blaumanis (1863-1908) with his original characters and ethical problems portrayed in prose and drama. Gaining inspiration from German literature, Blaumanis became the founder of the genre of the ‘psychological’ short story, reflecting conflicts and situations amongst the farming community. Blaumanis’ comedy ‘Skroderdienas Silmačos’ (Tailor-days in Silmači) has become the most-often performed play in the history of Latvian theatre. The dramas ‘Pazudušais Dēls’ (The Prodigal Son), ‘Ugunī’ (In the Fire), and ‘Indrāni’ reflect archetypal conflicts in Latvian farming life. Anna Brigadere (1861-1933) continued the tradition of psychological realism, and called the first novel of her trilogy ‘Dievs, daba, darbs’ (God, Nature, Work). Later these three notions were used often to describe Latvian classical literature. Andrievs Niedra’s (1871-1942) novel ‘Līduma dūmos’ (The Smoke of Land Clearing) (1899) gave a broad view of Latvian farming life in the late 19th century, revealing contradictions between the Baltic German aristocracy and the developing Latvian intelligentsia.
In the late 19th century Rīga became one of the largest Russian imperial port cities. Along with the entry of workers to the city, a new generation also entered literature, which, educated in the universities of Russia and Germany, wished to liken themselves and their culture to the cultural progress in Europe. Inspiration for the expansion of their horizons was gleaned from German and Russian culture. Interest in social life and ideals was encouraged by the newspaper ‘Dienas Lapa’, which popularised social democratic ideas. The magazine ‘Māja Viesa Mēnešraksts’ in turn introduced the reader to classics and Europe’s modern cultural compositions. At the close of the 1890s the poet Rainis (real name: Janis Pliekšāns, 1865-1929) translated Goethe’s ‘Faust’ (1897) into Latvian, as well as plays by Shakespeare and Schiller.
The poet Eduards Veidenbaums (1867-1892) became the first tragic legend in Latvian literature. His poems, based on romantic dualism and social activity were published after the death of this gifted and promising lawyer and polyglot.
The tradition of romantic poetry was strengthened by Jānis Poruks (1871-1911), who studied composition for one year at the Dresden Conservatoire and who was influenced by the ideas of Richard Wagner and Friedrich Nietzsche. Influenced by classic German romanticism, Poruks wrote the long story ‘Pērļu zvejnieks’ (The Pearl Fisherman) (1895), which revealed a synthesis of the ideas of realism and romanticism, in which the spiritual personality is destroyed by a mercantile social environment. Poruks also composed many lyrical compositions. At the turn of the century, Vilis Plūdons (1874-1940) wrote richly phonetic lyrico-epic works — long poems and ballads. The central character of the long poem ‘Atraitnes dēls’ (The Widow’s Son) is a Latvian overachiever, whose attempts at gaining an education are tragically stopped short.
The most talented poet of the 1890s was Elza Rozenberga (1865-1943), who chose the provocative pseudonym of Aspazija. With her, a strong and self-aware woman’s character entered Latvian poetry and drama. Aspazija’s romantic dramas ‘Vaidelote’ (The Priestess) and ‘Sidraba šķidrauts’ (The Silver Veil) and social drama ‘Zaudētās tiesības’ (The Lost Rights) were a challenge to public opinion. Aspazija became the founder of the movement to emancipate Latvian women. The works of the couple Rainis and Aspazija, combining experience derived from European classical culture with the tradition of Latvian literature, became points of reference for the next generations of poets. At the beginning of the century Rainis renewed the myth about the sunken castle in the symbolic drama ‘Uguns un nakts’ (Fire and Night) (1905), bringing back to life Pumpurs’ epic hero — Lāčplēsis, the son of a mythical person and a bear, who was created to triumph over an ancient enemy — the black knight — and to raise the sunken castle. Alongside Lāčplēsis, Rainis created the character of Spīdola, who invited the hero to constant spiritual development and improvement. After the revolutionary events of 1905 Rainis and Aspazija emigrated to Switzerland, where they lived until 1920. Rainis’ verse intertwines the experience of romanticism and symbolism, which is the most notable in his collection of poems ‘Gals un sākums’ (The End and the Beginning). In the plays ‘Zelta zirgs’ (The Golden Horse), ‘Pūt, vējiņi’ (Blow, Wind), ‘Krauklītis’ (The Little Raven), and ‘Spēlēju, dancoju’ (I Played, I Danced), Rainis uses motifs of Latvian folklore, addressing both the social and ethical problems of the time. The tragedy ‘Indulis and Ārija’ was based on a medieval Baltic legend. The creative peak of Rainis’ work is the tragedy ‘Jāzeps un viņa brāļi’ (Joseph and his Brothers), which is based on the Old Testament story of Joseph.
LATVIAN LITERATURE IN THE EARLY 20th CENTURY
European modernist ideas entered Latvian literature in the early 20th century. Viktors Eglītis (1877-1945) popularised the ideas of Russian and French symbolists. Haralds Eldgasts (1882-1926) announced modernist principles in the voluminous introduction to his novel ‘Zvaigžņotās naktis’ (Starry nights) (1905), integrating elements of naturalism, impressionism and symbolism. Edvards Virza’s anthology ‘Biķeris’ (The Goblet) (1907) contrasted romantic love poetry with sensuality and dark passion. New artistic experimentation was described as ‘decadent’, although new authors respected Latvian cultural tradition as well as principles of modern art. Many Latvian poets took part in the events of the 1905 Revolution and were later forced to emigrate. After 1906 a wide range of literature was published, offering various aesthetic perspectives.
The principles of naturalism and realism were embodied by Andrejs Upīts (1877-1970) in his series of novels, which reflected the social contradictions of rural life. Upīts portrayed the fate of the ‘small person’ in the city and the destructive processes caused by capitalism in his novels ‘Zelts’(Gold), ‘Sieviete’(The Woman) and ‘Pēdējais latvietis’(The Last Latvian). The tragedy of human life and the drama of fate were revealed in stories by Ernests Birznieks-Upītis (1871-1960) (‘Pelēkā akmens stāsti’ (Tales of the Grey Stone)).
In an attempt to integrate the modern person with the traditional lifestyle, Kārlis Skalbe (1879-1945) created a mystical combination of humans and nature, similar to Wilhelm Hauf, Hans Christian Andersen and Oscar Wilde, turning fairytales into an original literary genre. Skalbe solves ethical questions through metaphor and personification in the collection ‘Ziemas pasakas’ (Winter Tales) and in his following collections of stories. A special role in Latvian dramaturgy is occupied by Anna Brigadere’s fairytale plays ‘Sprīdītis’, ‘Maija and Paija’, ‘Princese Gundega un Karalis Brusubārda’ (Princess Gundega and King Brusubārda).
A synthesis of the ideas of symbolism and new romantic ideas allowed Latvian writers to link traditional Latvian farming life with a feel of the modern world. In the poetry anthology ‘Zemes dēls’ (Son of the Land) and ‘Dziesmas un lūgšanas Dzīvības kokam’ (Songs and Prayers to the Tree of Life), the poet Fricis Bārda (1880-1919), with a world view aligned with divine beings and pantheism, approximated the sprouting of grass with the movement of stars in the sky. Jānis Akuraters’ (1876-1937) story ‘Kalpa zēna vasara’ (The Young Farm-Worker’s Summer) portrayed a spiritually diverse identity on a pastoral backdrop. In a hundred scenes in ‘Baltā Grāmata’ (The White Book), Jānis Jaunsudrabiņš (1877-1962) paints a colourful picture of country life based on the cycle of the seasons, simultaneously employing the viewpoints of both adult and child characters. In turn, Jaunsudrabiņš’ tale ‘Vēja ziedi’ (Wind Blossoms) is the monologue of an impressionable young girl. Love as fatalism is at the basis of Jaunsudrabiņš’ novel ‘Aija’. Jaunsudrabiņš translated Norwegian writer Knut Hamsun’s works to Latvian, which influenced not just the translator, but also other Latvian writers.
The First World War changed Latvian culture. A large proportion of the Latvian people became refugees, leaving their farms, the traditional Latvian cultural space. Factories, along with their workers, were evacuated from Rīga to Russia. The Baltic territories were occupied by the German army. The creation of a regiment of Latvian riflemen within the Russian army also created patriotic fervour in literature. The location in ideologically opposing camps, losses on the war front and the dispersion of the Latvian people throughout Russia introduced themes related to expressionism in works by Pēteris Ērmanis, Jānis Sudrabkalns and Jānis Veselis. Patriotic enthusiasm, hope for the future and apocalyptic visions dominate the works of Rainis, Kārlis Skalbe, Jānis Akuraters and Edvards Virza.